Thursday, 6 November 2025

Paper 102: If Gray and Burns Lived Today: How Would Their Poetry Reflect the Modern World?

Paper 102: If Gray and Burns Lived Today: How Would Their Poetry Reflect the Modern World?

This blog is a part of the assignment of Paper 102: Literature of the Neo-classical Period

If Gray and Burns Lived Today: How Would Their Poetry Reflect the Modern World?



Academic Details:

  • Name: Kruti B. Vyas
  • Roll No.: 14
  • Enrollment No.: 5108250035
  • Sem.: 1
  • Batch: 2025 - 2027
  • E-mail: krutivyas2005@gmail.com

Assignment Details:

  • Paper Name: Literature of the Neo-classical Period
  • Paper No.: 102
  • Paper Code: 22393
  • Unit: 3 - Thomas Gray & Robert Burns
  • Topic: If Gray and Burns Lived Today: How Would Their Poetry Reflect the Modern World?
  • Submitted To: Smt. Sujata Binoy Gardi, Department of English, Maharaja Krishnakumarsinhji Bhavnagar University
  • Submitted Date: November 10, 2025

The following information-numbers are counted using QuillBot:


Abstract:

This essay explores how the 18th-century poetic visions of Thomas Gray and Robert Burns would manifest in the contemporary digital world. Gray, the elegist of obscurity, would confront the paradox of universal digital visibility, critiquing the shallowness of online memorialization and the anxiety of unfulfilled digital potential. His style would mirror the fragmentation and instability of the scrolling screen. Conversely, Burns, the radical advocate of the democratic spirit, would thrive as the bard of global dissent, utilizing viral platforms to satirize modern hypocrisy and amplify marginalized voices against the global elite. The combined modern poetry of Gray and Burns would offer a complete poetic response to the 21st century: a meditation on digital despair and a passionate call for authentic human solidarity. This expansion further delves into themes of algorithmic control, the privatization of melancholy, the gig economy, and the displacement caused by automation, revealing how their core concerns about fate, poverty, and human dignity remain acutely relevant.

Keywords:

Thomas Gray, Robert Burns, Digital Poetry, Elegy, Democratic Spirit, Digital Memorialization, Satire, 21st Century, Social Media, Literary Critique, Obscurity, Algorithmic Control, Gig Economy, Automation.

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Research Question: How would Thomas Gray and Robert Burns reinterpret their 18th-century poetic concerns if they lived in the 21st-century digital world, particularly in relation to digital memorialization, algorithmic control, social justice, and economic displacement?

Hypothesis:

If living today, Thomas Gray would critique digital overexposure, performative grief, and algorithmic fate through contemplative, fragmented elegiac poetry, while Robert Burns would harness digital media to champion democratic solidarity, challenge global capitalism, and defend the dignity of gig-economy workers. Their modern poetic voices would collectively reveal how core Enlightenment concerns - mortality, justice, and human worth - intensify in the digital age.



Generated by Grok AI 

Introduction: The 18th-Century Soul Meets the 21st-Century Algorithm

Imagine the quiet, meditative spirit of Thomas Gray and the fiery, democratic heart of Robert Burns suddenly transported from the agrarian landscapes and structured societies of the 18th century to the chaotic, digital sprawl of today. What would they see? And more importantly, how would they write?

Both poets were, in their time, observers of human experience, dignity, and mortality. Gray, the scholar and melancholic, pondered the silent potential of the common man in the face of oblivion. Burns, the ploughman and patriot, celebrated the common man’s immediate worth and raged against systems of oppression. Transplanted to the 21st century, their fundamental poetic missions would remain intact, yet their targets, mediums, and metaphors would undergo a radical transformation. Gray would become the poet of digital obscurity, while Burns would be the bard of the global democratic revolt.

Part I: Thomas Gray in the Digital Churchyard

Gray’s masterpiece, “Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard,” is an enduring meditation on death, potential, and the futility of ambition among the “unhonour’d dead.” In the 18th century, obscurity was the default state for the rural poor; their quiet lives and unfulfilled genius would vanish without a trace. The central tragedy was silence. Today, the tragedy is noise a constant, cacophonous demand for attention that ironically masks true human worth.

1. The Politics of Digital Memorialization and Data Heaps

If Gray walked through a modern cemetery, he would find solace in the physical quiet, but upon opening his phone, he would confront a new, overwhelming form of memorialization: the digital footprint. Jonathan C. Williams argues that Gray’s Elegy engages with the “politics of memorialization,” reflecting on who gets to be remembered and who is condemned to oblivion (Williams 2018). The power of the churchyard’s inscriptions lay in their scarcity and permanence; today, that power is diluted by sheer volume.


In the 21st century, every person, rich or poor, leaves behind an indelible, if fragmented, record of their life: social media profiles, archived emails, digital purchases, and online comments. Gray's famous line, "The paths of glory lead but to the grave," would feel ironically cheapened. Glory is no longer reserved for military heroes or statesmen; it is a cheap, algorithmically amplified commodity accessible to anyone with a microphone and a moment of viral luck. Gray would observe that this ubiquity of digital record does not confer dignity; rather, it transforms personal memory into public data. The very existence of a perpetual online presence a Facebook profile that remains active years after death would horrify Gray, as it denies the essential peace of oblivion he celebrates. He would see it as a forced, noisy immortality lacking in grace.


Gray’s modern “Elegy” would likely critique the performative, shallow nature of digital remembrance. He would mourn not the lack of memorial, but the type of memorial: an unending, chaotic feed of notifications and filtered memories, a digital “heap” of data that offers no true peace or dignity. The silent contemplation of the churchyard is replaced by the restless activity of the 'in memoriam' page, a constant flicker of interaction that prohibits solemn rest. This modern poet would note that without selection and silence, there can be no true reverence, only perpetual visibility.


Modern Gray’s Meditation:


“The long-neglected posts, the archived thread, The profile, though forgot, yet lives online, Can these recall the soul from out the dead? Or make the ‘like’ restore a Life Divine? For who, to dumb Forgetfulness a prey, The pleasing anxious being e'er resign'd, Left the warm precincts of the cheerful day, Nor cast one longing, ling'ring look behind? Yet still, upon the screen, their shadow lies, A phantom in the cloud, eternally bright, Denying that last sleep to weary eyes, A sleepless monument to fading light.”

2. The Anxiety of Unfulfilled Digital Potential in the Attention Economy

The original Elegy mourned the “mute inglorious Milton” whose genius was never discovered because of their humble circumstances. Gray’s concern was the "latent virtue" that was "chill'd" by poverty (Weinbrot 1978). The tragedy was circumstance preventing expression.


Today, the anxiety is reversed: the barrier to expression is gone, yet the quality of attention is diminished. Everyone can be a poet, a musician, or a philosopher with a few taps. Gray would write about the pressure to monetize existence, the universal compulsion to be seen, and the ultimate psychological toll of being a "mute inglorious influencer." This modern tragedy is not the lack of opportunity to publish, but the failure to be seen amid the deluge of content. The latent virtue is not chilled by poverty, but drowned by competition.


His modern poetry would explore the moral choice Weinbrot finds at the core of the poem the choice between a life of quiet virtue and a life of public ambition (Weinbrot 1978). The moral choice today is whether to engage with the relentless visibility machine or retreat to digital silence. Gray, ever the contemplative, would champion the latter, advocating for a deliberate, analogue obscurity against the tyranny of algorithmic relevance. He would note that the greatest virtue today is the refusal to commodify one's own grief or joy for the sake of views.

3. Instability, Fragmentation, and the Architecture of the Screen

W. Hutchings analyzed the "Syntax of Death" in the Elegy, noting the poem's structural and linguistic instability that reflects the nature of mortality (Hutchings 1984). This instability finds a perfect modern counterpart in the constantly refreshing, ephemeral nature of the digital screen, where facts shift, context vanishes, and the boundary between reality and simulation dissolves.





Gray’s modern poetry would be characterized by fragmentation. His stanzas might mimic the scrolling feed, moving abruptly between profound philosophical inquiry and trivial digital ephemera. The formal, stoic architecture of the original poem would be subverted to reflect the constant "restlessness" and lack of permanence inherent in cloud storage and volatile media. Furthermore, the modern threat of deepfakes and misinformation would become the ultimate manifestation of instability. Gray would write about the impossibility of finding a stable truth, an objective world, when every image and sound can be manufactured. The Epitaph at the end a final, stable marker of identity would be replaced by a final, unstable link to a dead profile page, perpetually buffering, awaiting deletion or exploitation.

4. The Privatization of Melancholy and the Cult of Self-Care

Gray’s poetry is infused with a deep, public melancholy a sadness that contemplates universal human fate. In the 21st century, melancholy has been privatized, pathologized, and commodified. Gray would observe the widespread discourse on mental health on social media, but critique its delivery. Instead of the quiet, natural solitude that allowed his narrator to contemplate death, modern platforms encourage performative sadness and the consumption of 'self-care' products.


Gray's modern verses would contrast the authentic, existential ache of his 18th-century self with the curated sadness of the modern 'sad-fluencer.' He would see the attempt to solve cosmic loneliness with subscription services or guided meditation apps as a profound failure of modern philosophy. His poetry would be a call back to genuine solitude to turning off the screen and finding true, unshared quiet.


Poem on Curated Grief: “Can storied urn or animated bust Back to its mansion call the fleeting breath? No, nor can filters hide the creeping rust, That finds its way in spite of Health-Tech death. The trending therapist, the branded tear, The shared anxiety in perfect font; These cannot quell the universal fear, Nor pay the soul's eternal, dark confront.”

5. The Algorithm as Fate: Fortune in a Networked World

The 18th-century mind often grappled with the fickle nature of Fortune or Fate, a capricious external power that determined whether genius found patronage or languished in obscurity. In Gray’s modern world, this capricious power is the algorithm.


The algorithm determines who is seen, who is paid, what information is consumed, and which voices are amplified. It is an opaque, uncontrollable, and highly personalized system of control that dictates success and failure on a global scale. Gray would see the algorithm as the modern equivalent of the Fates: weaving the web of one's destiny based on data points rather than divine will. His elegiac tone would attach itself to those “shadow-banned” or “de-platformed” individuals whose lives and livelihoods were quietly erased by an invisible, unappealable machine. The silence he lamented in the churchyard would be re-contextualized as the digital silence imposed by a faceless code. He would warn against praying to this new digital idol for favor, knowing that its only loyalty is to profit and retention.

Part II: Robert Burns, the Bard of the Global Grid

Robert Burns, the "heav'n-taught ploughman," channeled his poetic genius into the democratic cause, championing human equality and railing against hypocrisy and privilege. Christopher A. Whatley noted that Burns was repeatedly considered a “radical” and his political legacy was a matter of “contest” throughout the 19th century (Whatley 2011). If Burns lived today, the entire internet would be his coffee house, his printing press, and his stage a massive, immediate arena for democratic fire.


1. The Democratic Spirit and Digital Anarchy Against Global Oligarchy

Philip Butcher argued that Burns's poetry is fundamentally rooted in the “democratic spirit,” one that rejects the artificial distinctions of class and wealth in favour of universal human dignity (Butcher 1949). This spirit, in the 21st century, would find expression in global movements for social justice, financial equity, and political reform. Burns’s target would shift from the local laird and the Kirk (church) elite to the global oligarchy of tech, finance, and information.


Burns would be a master of the viral protest song and the deeply cutting political meme. His modern poetry would not only champion the common man against the local laird but against the global elite, the transnational corporations, and the opaque algorithms of power. His A Man’s A Man For A’ That would become an anthem shared across platforms, translated into dozens of languages, with his core message intact, but the imagery updated to target space races and financial bubbles.


Modern Burns’s Manifesto:


“Then let us pray that come it may, (As come it will for a’ that,) That sense and worth, o’er a’ the earth, Shall bear the gree, and a’ that. For a’ that, and a’ that, It's comin’ yet, for a’ that, That Man to Man, the world o’er, Shall brithers be for a’ that! Though CEOs may boast their billions high, And rocket past the planet’s sky, Their stock-share worth, their IPOs, Are built on tears and empty vows!”


This poem, originally an anti-establishment rallying cry, would be directed at global inequality, billionaires in space, and the political polarization that prevents true solidarity. His radicalism, which Whatley documents as being frequently suppressed, would flourish in the decentralized, yet intensely scrutinized, public square of the internet (Whatley 2011). He would see the internet as a tool for immediate, mass organization, bypassing traditional media gatekeepers a radical dream realized.

2. Language, Authenticity, and the Viral Rant as Poetic Form

One of the defining features of Burns’s work was his bold use of the Scots vernacular. This was not merely a linguistic choice; it was a political statement, asserting the cultural dignity of the common people against the polished, Anglicized diction of the literary establishment.

Walt Whitman praised Burns as a poet of “authenticity,” a figure of “immortal rank” whose work sprang directly from his lived experience and "unadulterated common humanity" (Whitman 1886). Today, this authenticity would translate into a blistering honesty against the pervasive artifice of online life. Burns would use his voice to cut through the smooth, corporate-approved language of official channels.


Burns would use the most immediate, unvarnished, and accessible language possible. He would be less concerned with the formal structures of poetry and more with immediate, emotional impact. His modern form would be the "rant" a passionate, meticulously crafted piece of satire delivered as a high-speed monologue or a series of viral, thread-based poems designed to bypass intellectual gatekeepers and land directly in the emotional centre of his audience. He would use regional dialects, internet slang, and powerful, plain-spoken English to create a sense of solidarity with the forgotten or marginalized online communities. His choice of medium would be inherently democratic: a quickly consumed, highly shared form that favors immediate truth over polite formality.

3. Satire, Toxicity, and the Modern Hypocrisy of the Keyboard Warrior

Burns reserved his sharpest wit for hypocrisy, whether in the church, the government, or the wealthy class. His modern satire would find an endless font of material, but he would also have to grapple with the new phenomenon of digital toxicity.


His targets would include:


  • Political Hypocrisy: Targeting politicians who use social media to feign relatability while passing damaging legislation.

  • Corporate Hypocrisy: Mercilessly lampooning corporations engaging in performative social activism (e.g., greenwashing, virtue signaling) while maintaining exploitative labor practices.

  • Digital Hypocrisy: Using his sharp rhyming couplets to expose the curated, perfect lives displayed online, contrasting them with the messy reality of human existence, reminiscent of his famous poem To a Mouse.





Crucially, Burns would also likely target the "Keyboard Warrior" those who preach democratic values and social justice online while showing vicious cruelty and intolerance to their personal targets. His satire would be aimed at the performance of moral superiority that lacks real-world action or compassion, seeing it as the new form of religious hypocrisy he so despised in the Kirk.


Modern Burns’s Observation on a Broken Screen:


“Wee, sleekit, cow’rin, tim’rous Beastie, O what a panic’s in thy breastie! Thou startles at a shatter’d screen, Where plastic lives have ever been. The perfect face, the perfect smile, The filter'd truth that doth beguile, Is gane, my friend, and a' is dust, Save this small shard, in which I trust! I mark thy little, cringing fear, A life but built on social cheer, The tyranny of public gaze, Where fame burns brighter than the blaze Of honest work or quiet soul; May ye find peace beyond the scroll.”

4. The New Clearances: Automation and Economic Displacement

A major theme in Burns's radicalism was the social and economic injustice inherent in the Highland Clearances the forceful eviction of poor tenants from the land to make way for profitable sheep. His poetry raged against the heartless replacement of people by economic efficiency.


In the 21st century, Burns would apply this same righteous anger to economic displacement via automation and Artificial Intelligence. The farmer replaced by sheep is the analogue to the factory worker replaced by a robot or the coder replaced by an LLM. This is the "New Clearance," where human labor is deemed inefficient and disposable by global capital.


Burns would pen powerful odes and lamentations for the dignity of labor, not just the output. His verse would challenge the morality of a system that prioritizes algorithmic efficiency over the stability and worth of human life. He would use his authentic voice (Whitman 1886) to stand with those whose skills have been rendered obsolete by relentless technological advancement, connecting their plight directly to the historical dispossession of the land.

5. The Ode to the Disposable Worker and the Gig Economy

Extending his democratic spirit, Burns would find his most potent modern subject in the Gig Economy. The casual, precarious nature of modern platform work delivery drivers, freelance writers, remote contractors mirrors the vulnerability of the 18th-century ploughman who depended on the goodwill (or lack thereof) of the landowner.


Burns would champion the right to fair wages, benefits, and unionization for these dispersed, isolated workers. His poetry would serve as a powerful organizing tool, using shared verses and memorable, rhythmic stanzas to forge solidarity across geographical and class lines. He would write a modernized version of A Man’s A Man For A’ That, specifically focused on the dehumanization inherent in being reduced to a "user ID" or an "on-demand asset." He would insist that the dignity of the human being (Butcher 1949) transcends the rating system of any application.


A Song for the Gig Worker (Excerpt): “Is there a soul, of gentle worth, Who races through the teeming earth, For pennies bid, and hours long, To sing the Corporation’s song? The rating stars, the faceless boss, Who reckons not the human loss, The bike is broke, the fever burns, But still the App demands its turns! For a' that, and a' that, We claim our worth for a' that, The human heart, the aching bone, Is not a code, nor stands alone!”


Conclusion: The Modern Fusion: Silence and Solidarity

The two poets, Gray and Burns, represent two different but equally vital responses to modernity. Gray offers perspective and caution; Burns offers passion and critique. Their transplantation to the 21st century reveals that the essential struggles of human existence the search for dignity, the fear of oblivion, and the fight against injustice have merely changed their medium, not their nature.


Gray’s modern poetry provides the essential moral resolution (Weinbrot 1978) to survive the digital rat race. By critiquing the noise of digital memorialization (Williams 2018) and the anxiety of algorithmic control, he provides the intellectual framework for resisting the tyranny of constant visibility. He champions the deliberate act of choosing obscurity a private, genuine life in the face of forced public performance.


Burns’s modern poetry provides the necessary fire and action. As the radical voice of the global democratic spirit (Butcher 1949), he uses the internet's decentralized nature to organize dissent, expose corporate and digital hypocrisy, and rally the disposable workers of the gig economy and the automated economy against new forms of displacement. His authenticity (Whitman 1886) ensures his message cuts through the polished political rhetoric.


Their joint modern poetry would explore the ultimate irony of the 21st century: the paradox of universal visibility leading to profound individual silence.


Theme Thomas Gray (The Observer) Robert Burns (The Activist)
Obscurity/Visibility Critiques the overwhelming, shallow noise of online life. Champions the dignity of digital silence and the danger of algorithmic fate. Uses digital visibility as a tool to amplify marginalized voices and democratic dissent against systemic oppression and global capital.
Legacy Wonders if a digital footprint constitutes a soul’s lasting memorial, or just a heap of unstable, fragmented data (Hutchings 1984). Fights to ensure the spirit of humanity, not just the data trail, remains visible and honored, particularly for the economically displaced.
Economic Critique Focuses on the psychological anxiety and failure of potential in the attention economy and the pressures of monetization. Focuses on the systemic injustice of the gig economy and the New Clearances caused by automation and AI.
Form/Medium Fragmented, scrolling long-form poems; meditations on the screen's unstable architecture. A voice of quiet, private melancholy. Viral threads, short, biting satires, and deeply personal video essays delivered in authentic vernacular. A voice of passionate, public solidarity.


In the most powerful modern poems, Gray’s quiet, contemplative style might frame Burns's passionate outcry. A poem could begin with Gray’s melancholy meditation on the endless scroll of forgotten, trivial data points the digital remains of the "unhonoured dead." Then, Burns’s voice would burst through this quiet despair, using the same digital medium to reassert human value, demanding that the democratic spirit (Butcher 1949) rise above the noise.


Their combined legacy, were they alive today, would form a complete poetic response to our age: a sobering reflection on its tragic failures of connection, and a passionate, authentic call to action for the fulfillment of its democratic promise. The fusion of Gray's stoic contemplation and Burns's fiery humanism offers us a necessary guide to navigating the complexities of the digital age with both wisdom and moral courage.


AI-Generated Prezi Presentation of above Highlighted Quotations:





Gray & Burns in the 21st Century | Paper 102

If Gray and Burns Lived Today

How Their Poetry Would Reflect the Modern World

An Infographic Visualizing Paper 102 by Kruti B. Vyas

The 18th-Century Soul Meets the 21st-Century Algorithm

Thomas Gray and Robert Burns, two titans of 18th-century poetry, were profound observers of human dignity, mortality, and oppression. This infographic explores how their core poetic missions would translate to the chaotic, digital sprawl of today, transforming their targets, mediums, and metaphors.

Thomas Gray

THE OBSERVER

The 18th-century scholar and melancholic who pondered the silent potential of the common man in the face of oblivion. His concern was the **tragedy of silence**.

The Digital Challenge

THE MODERN WORLD

A landscape of constant noise, algorithmic control, digital memorialization, globalized oligarchy, and a new gig-based economy.

Robert Burns

THE ACTIVIST

The 18th-century ploughman and patriot who celebrated the common man’s immediate worth and raged against systems of oppression. His concern was **systemic injustice**.

Part I: Thomas Gray in the Digital Churchyard

Gray's meditative "Elegy" mourned the "unhonour'd dead" whose potential was lost to obscurity. Today, he would confront the opposite: a world of universal, noisy visibility where obscurity is a choice, not a default. He would become the poet of **digital despair** and the **Algorithm as Fate**.

Gray's Modern Persona

A radar chart visualizing the core themes of a 21st-century Thomas Gray. His focus shifts from natural melancholy to a deep critique of the digital architecture that controls our lives and memories.

The Tragedy of Obscurity vs. Noise

Gray's central tragedy was circumstance preventing expression. Today, the tragedy is the overwhelming noise of digital life, where failure to be seen amid the deluge of content is the new anxiety.

Part II: Robert Burns, the Bard of the Global Grid

Burns, the "heav'n-taught ploughman," used his poetic genius to champion the democratic cause. Today, the internet would be his printing press. He would be the bard of **global solidarity**, using viral rants and protest songs to challenge the new global oligarchy.

Burns's Modern Activism

This profile shows Burns as a digital activist. His use of authentic vernacular and satire would target corporate hypocrisy, political corruption, and the dehumanization of the modern worker.

The New Clearances: Economic Displacement

Burns raged against the Highland Clearances, where people were replaced by sheep. Today, he would champion the "disposable" worker, comparing this "New Clearance" of automation, AI, and the gig economy to its historical counterpart.

18th-Century

21st-Century

Conclusion: Silence vs. Solidarity

Transplanted to the 21st century, Gray and Burns offer two vital, opposing responses to modernity. Gray champions the private, genuine life (Silence), while Burns uses digital tools to organize public dissent and reclaim human dignity (Solidarity).

Theme Thomas Gray (The Observer) Robert Burns (The Activist)
Obscurity/Visibility Critiques shallow digital noise. Champions the dignity of choosing digital silence. Uses digital visibility as a tool to amplify marginalized voices and democratic dissent.
Legacy Wonders if a digital footprint is a memorial or just a heap of unstable, fragmented data. Fights to ensure the human spirit, not the data trail, remains visible and honored.
Economic Critique Focuses on the anxiety and failure of potential in the monetized "attention economy." Focuses on the systemic injustice of the gig economy and displacement by AI.
Form/Medium Fragmented, scrolling poems; meditations on the screen's unstable architecture. Viral threads, biting satires, and authentic video essays in vernacular language.

Academic Details

Name: Kruti B. Vyas

Paper: 102 - Literature of the Neo-classical Period

Submitted To: Smt. Sujata Binoy Gardi, Department of English

Maharaja Krishnakumarsinhji Bhavnagar University

Work Cited:

  • Butcher, Philip. “Robert Burns and the Democratic Spirit.” Phylon (1940-1956), vol. 10, no. 3, 1949, pp. 265–72. JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/272397
  • Hutchings, W. “Syntax of Death: Instability in Gray’s ‘Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard.’” Studies in Philology, vol. 81, no. 4, 1984, pp. 496–514. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/4174190.
  • Weinbrot, Howard D. “Gray’s Elegy: A Poem of Moral Choice and Resolution.” Studies in English Literature, 1500-1900, vol. 18, no. 3, 1978, pp. 537–51. JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/450128.
  • Whatley, Christopher A. “‘It Is Said That Burns Was a Radical’: Contest, Concession, and the Political Legacy of Robert Burns, ca. 1796—1859.” Journal of British Studies, vol. 50, no. 3, 2011, pp. 639–66. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/23265422.
  • Whitman, Walt. “Robert Burns as Poet and Person.” The North American Review, vol. 143, no. 360, 1886, pp. 427–35. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25101126.
  • WILLIAMS, JONATHAN C. “Thomas Gray’s Elegy and the Politics of Memorialization.” Studies in English Literature, 1500-1900, vol. 58, no. 3, 2018, pp. 653–72. JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/26541979.

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