"Political Allegory of Power and Rebellion"
This blog written as a task assigned by the Head of the Department of English (MKBU), Prof. and Dr. Dilip Barad Sir. Here is the link to the professor's blog for background reading :Click Here
“Father, Son, and False Friend: Dryden’s Absalom and Achitophel as a Masterpiece of Political Satire”
Basic Introduction:
John Dryden’s Absalom and Achitophel was first published in 1681 as a direct response to a significant political crisis in England known as the Exclusion Crisis, which took place from 1679 to 1681. During this period, opponents of King Charles II in Parliament sought to exclude his brother, James, from the line of succession due to James's conversion to Roman Catholicism. This generated widespread political tension and fear, as many in England were deeply suspicious and hostile towards Catholics. Dryden's poem takes the form of a satiric narrative and uses the biblical story of Absalom’s rebellion against King David as an allegory to comment on the contemporary political events and figures associated with the crisis. Through this allegory, Dryden mocks the King’s political adversaries and exposes their motives with sharp wit, while also making clear his own strong support for the monarchy.
The poem is written in heroic couplets, a stylistic form that Dryden famously mastered, adding a rhythmic and dignified tone that enhanced the impact of his satire. Beyond its literary form, Absalom and Achitophel reveals Dryden’s political and religious sympathies during this tumultuous time, showing loyalty to the royalist cause and condemning the efforts to undermine the legitimate succession. This work stands as one of Dryden’s major poetic achievements, blending literary craft with acute political commentary, capturing both the drama of the historical moment and enduring themes of power, loyalty, and rebellion. It remains a significant example of Restoration satire and allegory, reflecting the tensions and conflicts that shaped late 17th-century England.
If you want to read the original poem, Click here
A Mind Map of this blog is provided here: Absalom and Achitophel-A Political Satire
Historical Context of John Dryden’s Absalom and Achitophel:
1. England in the Late 1600s:
When Dryden wrote Absalom and Achitophel in 1681, England was in political and religious turmoil. People feared that their Protestant country might end up ruled by a Catholic king, which created deep divisions between political factions.
2. The Popish Plot (1678):
•A clergyman named Titus Oates falsely claimed there was a Catholic plan to kill King Charles II and place his Catholic brother, James, Duke of York, on the throne. Though it was a lie, the story caused mass panic. Many Catholics were imprisoned or executed.
•This anti-Catholic hysteria laid the groundwork for open political conflict.
3. The Exclusion Crisis (1679–1681):
•Politicians known as the Whigs, led by Anthony Ashley Cooper, Earl of Shaftesbury, wanted to exclude James, Duke of York from becoming king because he was Catholic.
•They hoped instead to promote a Protestant alternative.
•The Tories, who supported the monarchy, opposed this plan, arguing that the line of succession was sacred and should not be interfered with.
•The country was split between fears of Catholic tyranny and fears of rebellion against monarchy.
4. The Role of the Duke of Monmouth:
•James Scott, Duke of Monmouth, was King Charles II’s illegitimate but Protestant son.
Popular with the people, he looked like a Protestant alternative to James, Duke of York.
•Rumours spread that Charles had married Monmouth’s mother, Lucy Walter, in secret. If true, Monmouth would be a legitimate heir.
•The Whigs eagerly supported him, while the King refused to name him as successor.
In Absalom and Achitophel, Monmouth is represented as Absalom the beloved but misguided son tempted into rebellion.
5. Dryden’s Motivation for Writing (1681):
•Dryden, a loyal supporter of the King (a Tory and Poet Laureate), wrote this poem as a political intervention.
•Using the biblical story of Absalom’s rebellion against King David, he attacked
•Shaftesbury (as Achitophel) for manipulating Monmouth and praised Charles II (as David) as a patient and God-given ruler.
•The poem’s aim was to defend the monarchy and expose the dangers of rebellion disguised as reform.
6. Aftermath: The Monmouth Rebellion (1685)
•Although the Exclusion Crisis passed without revolution, in 1685, after Charles II’s death, Monmouth actually rebelled against James II (his uncle).
•The rebellion failed, and Monmouth was executed.
•This event confirmed Dryden’s message: ambition and rebellion against divine monarchy end in tragedy, just as Absalom’s biblical story had shown.
John Dryden (1631-1700)
Dryden’s Political Purpose in Absalom and Achitophel:
John Dryden wrote Absalom and Achitophel (1681) as a royalist intervention during the Exclusion Crisis (1679–1681). At this time, Parliament sought to exclude James, Duke of York, from the line of succession because he was Catholic, in a nation gripped by anti-Catholic fears after the Popish Plot (1678).
Dryden’s political purpose was to protect the Duke of York’s claim and defend the principle of hereditary monarchy against Whig attempts to replace him with the Protestant but illegitimate Duke of Monmouth. Using biblical allegory, he cast:
• Charles II as David – the wise and divinely chosen king.
• Monmouth as Absalom – the beloved but illegitimate son led astray.
•Shaftesbury as Achitophel – the false counsellor pushing rebellion.
Through this framework, Dryden reinforced royalist arguments: that rebellion cloaked in “reform” was dangerous, that legitimacy mattered more than popularity, and that God’s will upheld the established succession. His chief purpose was therefore to preserve James’s right to the throne despite the powerful anti-Catholic climate of the times.
Author and Publication of Absalom and Achitophel:
Part I (1681) —
Author: Written entirely by John Dryden (1631–1700), Poet Laureate of England and the foremost literary figure of the Restoration. Dryden was already famous for his plays, poems, and critical works, but Absalom and Achitophel established him as the master of political satire.
Publication: Published in November 1681, during the height of the Exclusion Crisis (1679–1681), when Parliament debated excluding James, Duke of York (the king’s Catholic brother) from the line of succession.
Genre and Form: The poem is a verse satire, composed in heroic couplets (pairs of rhymed iambic pentameter lines). This was Dryden’s signature form, combining elegance, rhythm, wit, and sharpness. It gave the satire moral weight as well as immediate memorability.
Content: Dryden turned contemporary politics into a biblical allegory, drawing from the story in 2 Samuel 13–19:
•David = Charles II (the rightful, wise king)
•Absalom = James Scott, Duke of Monmouth (Charles’s illegitimate but popular Protestant son)
•Achitophel = Anthony Ashley Cooper, Earl of Shaftesbury (Whig leader and chief opponent of the Duke of York)
This allegorical structure allowed Dryden to attack his political enemies while sanctifying the monarchy as divinely chosen.
Impact: The first part was both a political weapon and a literary triumph. It defended Charles II and the succession of the Duke of York, and it became an immediate success for its biting wit, vivid portraits, and moral authority. Even today, Part I is regarded as one of the greatest political satires in English literature.
Part II (1682) —
Publication: A continuation of the poem was published in November 1682, one year after Dryden’s original.
Main Authorship: This second part was largely written by Nahum Tate, a poet, dramatist, and Dryden’s contemporary who later became Poet Laureate.
Dryden’s Contribution: Although Tate wrote most of Part II, Dryden added about 200 lines. These lines stand out for their polish and power. In them:
-Dryden continues to support royalist politics and warn against rebellion.
-He also turns his satire toward his literary rivals, taking the opportunity to mock writers who had opposed him.
Context: By 1682, the political crisis was easing. Shaftesbury was imprisoned (later acquitted), and Whig influence was weakening. Thus, Part II served more to consolidate the royalist victory rather than to intervene in a moment of immediate peril.
Reception:
-Critics have long found Part II weaker than Part I because Tate lacked Dryden’s finesse and control.
-However, Dryden’s 200 lines remain admired for their sharp satire and are often quoted separately.
-Historically, it reinforced Tory propaganda, but literarily, it has always been considered a lesser work.
Monmouth's Legitimacy: The Uncertainty of a Royal Claim:
James, Duke of Monmouth's legitimacy was a highly contentious issue, as his claim to the throne rested on rumors that his parents, King Charles II and Lucy Walter, had secretly married. This would have made him the rightful heir, a claim that was particularly appealing to those who opposed Charles II's Catholic brother, James, Duke of York. Charles II, however, consistently and publicly denied the marriage ever took place.
•The Problem of Succession:
King Charles II had no legitimate children with his wife, Catherine of Braganza, despite their long marriage. This created a succession crisis, as his heir presumptive was his brother, James, a staunch Catholic. The prospect of a Catholic monarch was alarming to many in Protestant England, leading to a major political conflict known as the Exclusion Crisis (1679-1681). During this period, Protestant factions in Parliament attempted to pass a bill to exclude James from the line of succession.
•Monmouth's Claim and the "Black Box":
In this climate of political tension, Monmouth's supporters, known as Whigs, championed his cause. They circulated a rumor that Charles II had married Lucy Walter in a secret ceremony, and that the marriage certificate was hidden in a "black box." The Whigs used this rumor to present Monmouth as the rightful, Protestant alternative to the Catholic Duke of York.
Charles II was forced to take a public stance. In 1678, he issued a formal declaration stating that he had never been married to Lucy Walter, or to any woman other than his wife, Catherine of Braganza. He also had his Privy Council examine the witnesses and evidence, concluding that the rumors were false. The "black box" was never produced.
•Aftermath and Monmouth's Rebellion:
Despite Charles II's denials, many people continued to believe in Monmouth's legitimacy. Following Charles II's death in 1685, and his brother James's accession as King James II, Monmouth launched a rebellion to seize the throne. The rebellion was ultimately a failure, and Monmouth was captured and executed. His death effectively ended the direct challenge to James II's rule based on a claim of legitimate succession.
The Allegorical Framework: When the Bible Walked into Restoration England
Imagine London in 1681. The city hums with rumours of plots, pamphlets fly in all directions, and in taverns men argue about whether England will bow to a Catholic king. Into this storm steps John Dryden, pen in hand, spinning politics into poetry. But instead of naming his villains and heroes outright, he turns to the ancient poetry of Scripture a story his audience knew by heart.
A Familiar Tale Recast:
From 2 Samuel chapters 13–19, Dryden borrows the tragic story:
•Absalom, King David’s handsome, adored son, restless for more than love and caught in vanity.
•Achitophel, David’s brilliant but faithless adviser, whose silvered tongue fans the flames of rebellion.
•David, weary yet wise, the rightful king whose divine authority is tested by betrayal from within his own house.
The Bible had already etched this tale as a tragedy of pride and false counsel. Dryden only needed to lift it out of ancient Israel and plant it in Restoration England.
England Cast in the Roles of Israel:
Dryden’s audience didn’t need a key they could see the substitutions instantly:
•David becomes Charles II, the king on England’s throne, indulgent yet divinely appointed.
•Absalom is James Scott, Duke of Monmouth, Charles’s illegitimate but wildly popular Protestant son. A figure “too beloved” adored by the crowd, yet legally insecure.
•Achitophel wears the face of Anthony Ashley Cooper, Earl of Shaftesbury, the mastermind of the Whigs, the wily statesman who whispers rebellion into Monmouth’s ear.
This was no abstraction; it was political caricature turned into scripture. Shaftesbury as the false counsellor was damned not just by politics, but by the authority of the Bible itself.
The Puzzle of Monmouth’s Legitimacy:
And here is the beating heart of Dryden’s allegory: the uncertainty of legitimacy.
•Monmouth’s mother, Lucy Walter, had been the King’s mistress. Whispers claimed Charles had secretly married her, making Monmouth not a bastard but a rightful heir.
•Yet Charles always denied it, and his queen, Catherine of Braganza, remained childless. That void in the royal cradle gave fuel to speculation.
Thus Monmouth floated in a murky space beloved like Absalom, but without clear right. To build hopes on him, Dryden warns, is to build rebellion on sand.
Why This Matters:
By draping his contemporaries in biblical robes, Dryden turned a messy squabble about succession into a grand morality play. Ambition, vanity, and bad counsel were no longer just political sins they were cosmic, timeless errors, the kind that Scripture already warned lead only to downfall. When Restoration readers turned the pages, they were not simply reading satire; they were reading a sermon in verse, a warning written as history repeating itself: beware the beloved son turned rebel, beware the counsellor with honey on his lips, and trust the king whom God has placed on the throne.
| Nature of Satire | Relevance in Absalom and Achitophel |
|---|---|
| Horatian Satire | Gentle ridicule of public folly, subtle humor and irony, especially in the portrayal of minor political figures. |
| Juvenalian Satire | Bitter denunciation of major antagonists and political corruption, with a tone of seriousness and moral outrage. |
| Menippean Satire | Critique of collective mindsets like general public fickleness, and societal hypocrisy on a conceptual level. |
Absalom and Achitophel as Verse Satire
1. What is Verse Satire?
Verse satire is satire written in poetic form using rhythm, rhyme, and literary devices not just to say something critical, but to perform the critique in verse. Unlike prose pamphlets, verse satire carries elegance, wit, and memorability. Its compression and music give satire sharper teeth.Dryden writes his satire in heroic couplets pairs of rhymed lines in iambic pentameter. The couplets are poised, balanced, and epigrammatic, often ending with a sting or witty summation. This tight form mirrors the precision of his political attacks: each line hits like a polished arrow.
2. How Dryden Uses Satire in Absalom and Achitophel
a. Allegory as Satire
The entire poem is a vast satirical allegory. By casting living politicians as biblical figures, Dryden disguises real people under a veneer of fable but the disguises are thin.
•Shaftesbury is Achitophel, manipulative and scheming.
•Monmouth is Absalom, charming but led astray by ambition. •Charles II is David, generous but diviely chosen.
The satire stings because the audience can see both masks at once: the grandeur of the biblical story and the critique of real 17th-century figures.
b. Character Portraits
Dryden’s satire shines in his mock-portraits. These are half-flattering, half-damning descriptions that give each figure psychological depth while ridiculing their flaws.
•Monmouth (Absalom) is described as beloved, handsome, and popular but the very excess of devotion is mocked as dangerous vanity.
•Shaftesbury (Achitophel) is praised for wit and eloquence, but those qualities are twisted toward manipulation and treachery.
•Critics note the brilliance of Dryden’s technique: he admits their strengths, yet reworks them as fatal weaknesses. That’s satire at its sharpest it damns by faint praise.
c. Irony and Wit:
Dryden’s heroic couplets often hinge on irony statements that sound like compliments until their sting is revealed. His verse is polished and urbane, maintaining the tone of moral authority even as it slices into opponents. This makes the satire harder to dismiss as cheap mockery; it feels measured, inevitable, poetic.
d. Political Satire as Public Weapon:
Unlike private lampoons, Absalom and Achitophel was written for public circulation during crisis. Its verse satire gave royalist politics a literary weapon against the Whigs at the height of the Exclusion Crisis. Prose political arguments might fade, but witty verse could stick in the memory and circulate quickly. Satire here isn’t entertainment, it’s designed to shape opinion.
3. Why “Verse” Matters:
The choice of verse is not ornamental, it’s strategic.
Form: Heroic couplets gave the satire authority, smoothness, and rhetorical balance, matching the grandeur of the biblical allegory.
Accessibility: Poetry was easier to memorize and quote, spreading Dryden’s political message.
Elevation: Writing in verse elevated political propaganda into art, giving monarchy’s defence the dignity of literature while reducing its enemies to figures of ridicule.
Key Themes in Absalom and Achitophel
{This image is a rich visual allegory that brings to life the complex political and religious themes of John Dryden's poem Absalom and Achitophel}
1. Politics, Allegory, and Satire
One of the most striking features of Dryden’s poem is how he takes immediate politics and cloaks it in biblical allegory. The Exclusion Crisis Parliament’s attempt to bar James, Duke of York, from succession because of his Catholic faith is reimagined as the rebellion of Absalom against King David.
Allegorical Mapping:
Charles II → King David (legitimate chosen king).
Monmouth → Absalom (beloved but illegitimate son).
Shaftesbury → Achitophel (cunning counsellor who incites revolt).
Satirical Technique: Dryden uses character portraits that mix praise and mockery. For example, Shaftesbury is described as dazzlingly eloquent, yet his eloquence is twisted into manipulation. Monmouth’s popularity and good looks are acknowledged, but these are revealed as dangerous weaknesses that make him a tool for others.
Example: Just as the biblical Absalom “stole the hearts of the people,” Monmouth wins over the English crowd but Dryden satirically suggests this charm is hollow, a sign of vanity, not worthiness.
2. God, Religion, and the Divine Right of Kings
A second theme is the sacred nature of kingship for Dryden, monarchy is no ordinary institution but a reflection of divine order.
Divine Right: By presenting Charles as David, Dryden invokes the idea that kings are God’s anointed rulers. To challenge them is not simple disagreement but sacrilege. The succession line, therefore, cannot be tampered with by Parliament or by popular faction.
Context: England in the late 1670s and early 1680s was bubbling with anti-Catholic paranoia after the Popish Plot. Whigs argued that allowing a Catholic successor (James, Duke of York) threatened Protestant liberty. Dryden counters this fear by elevating monarchy above all political debates: even a Catholic king is preferable to unlawful rebellion, because God, not men, chooses rulers.
Example: The rumours about Monmouth’s mother, Lucy Walter, suggested that Charles II may have secretly married her, making Monmouth legitimate. Dryden rejects this possibility by reinforcing divine order illegitimate affection cannot override God’s ordained succession.
3. Power and Ambition
The most human theme in the poem is ambition the dangerous temptation that leads gifted men astray.
Absalom/Monmouth: Dryden presents him as a tragic figure: handsome, beloved, admired by the people. His flaw is not malice but excessive ambition, which makes him easy prey to Shaftesbury’s counsel. Like the biblical Absalom, he is too willing to exchange a father’s love for public glory.
Achitophel/Shaftesbury: His betrayal is driven by political ambition, but not for the throne itself. Instead, he craves control over power, manipulating Absalom as his instrument. His intelligence is acknowledged, but his ambition taints it.
David/Charles: Even Charles’s compassion becomes dangerous in this theme. By overindulging Monmouth, he encourages his son’s reckless hopes. Dryden subtly shows how even royal affection can contribute to political unrest when mixed with ambition.
Historical Outcome: Dryden’s warning was prophetic just four years later, in 1685, Monmouth actually rebelled against James II. His rebellion failed, and he was executed mirroring Absalom’s biblical downfall.
“In Absalom and Achitophel, Dryden turned politics into parable; in its second part, he sharpened the weapon further—aiming not only at rebels to the crown but also at rivals to his pen.”
{This picture is a clever and witty visual representation of a heroic couplet, a key element of John Dryden's poem Absalom and Achitophel}
Character study:
| Character | Allegorical Representation |
|---|---|
| David | King Charles II |
| Absalom | James Scott, Duke of Monmouth |
| Achitophel | Anthony Ashley Cooper |
| Saul | Oliver Cromwell |
| David’s brother | James II |
| Corah | Titus Oates |
| Shimei | Slingsby Bethel |
| Zimri | George Villiers |
| The Pharaoh | Louis XIV of France |
| Ishbosheth | Richard Cromwell |
| Jonas | William Jones |
| Zadoc | William Sancroft |
| Barzillai | James Butler |
| Barzillai’s eldest Son | Thomas Butler |
| Jotham | George Savile |
| Amiel | Edward Seymour |
Minor Characters
| Character | Allegorical Representation |
|---|---|
| Balaam | Theophilus Hastings |
| Caleb | Arthur Capel |
| Nadab | William, Lord Howard Esrick |
| Zadoc | William Sancroft |
| Sagan of Jerusalem | Henry Compton |
| Adriel | John Sheffield |
| Hushai | Lawrence Hyde |
| Amnon | (Absalom’s half brother) |
| Michal | Catherine |
| Annabel | Anne |
David had a very handsome son. His name was Absalom and he betrayed his father the king and led a rebellion against him. The Bible says that Absalom was “beautiful“ and he only cut his hair once a year. Here is what the Bible says about him:
“Now in all Israel there was no one so much to be praised for his beauty as Absalom; from the sole of his foot to the crown of his head there was no blemish in him. And when he cut the hair of his head (for at the end of every year he used to cut it; when it was heavy on him, he cut it), he weighed the hair of his head, two hundred shekels by the king’s weight”
The pile of hair left on the floor each year, after Absalom’s haircut, weighed 200 shekels. How much is 200 shekels? It is an amazing 4.4 pounds!
Now, do you remember how Absalom died in his fight against his father, King David?
Absalom was riding upon his mule, and the mule went under the thick branches of a great oak, and his head caught fast in the oak, and he was left hanging [presumably by his hair] between heaven and earth, while the mule that was under him went on….
“Joab said, “I will not waste time like this with you.” And he took three darts in his hand, and thrust them into the heart of Absalom, while he was still alive in the oak. And ten young men, Joab’s armor-bearers, surrounded Absalom and struck him, and killed him”.
Achitophel, the Puppet Master:
Achitophel strides upon the stage as the arch-conspirator, his feigned loyalty masking a restless and ruthless ambition. With every step, “false Achitophel” reveals the venom of his “crooked counsels,” a mastermind whose small frame belies the wildfire burning within. He is perpetually dissatisfied, forever chasing new intrigues, power always just beyond his grasp. Unworthy by blood to seize the crown, he crafts a scheme: if he cannot rule as king, then he will rule through oth Absalom, his carefully chosen puppet.
Clever as a fox, Achitophel possesses a unique gift: to sense the vein of discontent pulsing through Israel’s people and to press upon it, amplifying their jealousies and fears until the crowd sways toward rebellion. Absalom handsome, beloved becomes his instrument, paraded like a trophy before the crowd, their hope twisted for Achitophel’s gain. Every whisper in the dark, every injection of doubt, stems from his desire not to heal the nation, but to enthrone himself in secret, power coursing through his veins by proxy.
Allegorically, Achitophel stands for Anthony Ashley Cooper, the Earl of Shaftesbury, who in history wielded the mob’s passion to serve his own ambition just as Achitophel wields Absalom, believing that if he cannot be king, he will at least be kingmaker.
Inshort:
•Absalom (James Scott, Duke of Monmouth):
Absalom represents Monmouth, the illegitimate but Protestant son of King Charles II. In the poem, Absalom is portrayed as handsome, popular, and charming, beloved by the people. Despite lacking a legitimate claim to the throne, his Protestant faith and charisma make him the figurehead of the opposition against the Catholic succession. However, his youth and inexperience leave him vulnerable to manipulation by others, especially Achitophel.
Absalom’s Conflict:
Absalom:
“I am but a young man, torn by duty and desire. The people’s hopes weigh heavily on my shoulders, yet loyalty to my father David still beats strong within me. How shall I choose between love and ambition?”
•Achitophel (Anthony Ashley Cooper, Earl of Shaftesbury):
Achitophel symbolizes Shaftesbury, a leading political figure who opposed the Catholic succession and sought to promote Monmouth as the rightful heir. He is characterized as a cunning and ruthless schemer, whose “crooked counsels” aim to destabilize the kingdom to further his own ambition. Achitophel is a master manipulator who exploits public fears and jealousies, steering Absalom and the people toward rebellion while hiding his true self-interest.
Achitophel’s Scheming:
Achitophel (whispering):
“Monmouth’s charm and the people’s unrest create a perfect storm. Through him, I shall command the throne itself, though I stand far from royal blood. Let the king’s weakness fuel our cause, for power is mine to seize.”
•David (King Charles II):
David represents King Charles II himself. As the reigning monarch, he is dignified, wise, and compassionate but faces the threat of rebellion and political upheaval. In the poem, David is depicted as a father torn between love for his son and duty to his kingdom. He must confront betrayal while striving to maintain unity and order in Israel, symbolizing England.
David’s Lament:
David:
“My heart breaks to see my own son led astray by false counsels. Yet, I must hold steadfast, for the realm’s peace depends upon the crown’s strength. May wisdom guide my hand in these dark times.”
Together, these three figures dramatize the intense political and religious conflicts of the time, with Absalom/Monmouth as the hopeful but inexperienced contender, Achitophel/Shaftesbury as the manipulative power-seeker, and David/Charles II as the embattled sovereign trying to preserve his reign.
Conclusion:
John Dryden’s Absalom and Achitophel is a masterful political satire that uses biblical allegory to comment on the political turmoil of late 17th-century England, specifically the Exclusion Crisis. Through the story of Absalom’s rebellion against King David, Dryden critiques the efforts to exclude the Catholic James from the throne and champions the idea of the divine right and legitimacy of monarchy. The poem skillfully exposes the ambitions and manipulations of those who oppose the king, portraying them as disruptive and dangerous to social order. Dryden’s use of heroic couplets enhances the poem’s formal elegance and persuasive power. Ultimately, Absalom and Achitophel stands as a timeless reflection on loyalty, power, and political intrigue, reinforcing the belief in rightful authority and warning against rebellion and usurpation. It remains a significant work for understanding both Dryden’s literary genius and the political anxieties of his era.
Here is the overview of this Blog:
References:
1. Absalom and Achitophel, Worksheet, Dilip Barad sir, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/394929948_Worksheet_on_Absalom_and_Achitophel_by_Dryden
2. Absalom and Achitophel, second part composed by Nahum Tate https://www.britannica.com/topic/Absalom-and-Achitophel
3.Barad, Dilip. "Absalom and Achitophel: Worksheet." Dilip Barad | Teacher Blog, 4 January 2021.
4.Dryden, John. Absalom and Achitophel. First published 1681https://www.britannica.com/topic/Absalom-and-Achitophel
5.The Holy Bible. 2 Samuel chapters 13–19https://bible.usccb.org/bible/2samuel/13
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